Mars Gazette

Title: Mercury’s Incredible Shrinking Act: New Study Sheds Light

Mercury, the smallest planet in our solar system and the closest to the sun, is still shrinking. A new study has offered a more precise estimate on just how much the planet has contracted as it cools from its molten state following its formation.

The contraction of Mercury is a fascinating process that has been happening over billions of years. The cooling core of the planet has caused it to shrink, creating wrinkles on its surface known as lobate scarps. These cliff-like landforms are a visual record of the planet’s history and its continuous cooling.

Previously, estimates of Mercury’s contraction were broad, ranging from 1 to 10 kilometers in radius reduction over the last 4 billion years. However, new research has significantly narrowed down this estimate, providing a more definitive picture of the planet’s transformation.

The study, conducted by an international team of scientists, used thousands of images of Mercury’s surface captured by NASA’s MESSENGER spacecraft, which orbited the planet from 2011 to 2015. By analyzing these images and using a new global topographic map, the researchers were able to measure the surface area lost as the planet contracted.

The results of their analysis reveal that Mercury has shrunk by approximately 14 kilometers in radius since its formation 4.5 billion years ago. This is significantly more than previous estimates for the last 4 billion years and suggests that the planet may have contracted more rapidly in its early history.

This discovery is not only a milestone in our understanding of Mercury’s evolution but also provides valuable insight into the processes that shape the planets in our solar system.

“The new estimate of Mercury’s contraction is significant because it tells us about the planet’s thermal history, the material it’s made of, and how its interior has cooled,” explained Paul Byrne, associate professor of planetary science at North Carolina State University and one of the study’s authors.

The findings also have implications for our understanding of other rocky planets, including Earth. “Mercury provides an example of how planets cool and contract,” Byrne added. “So the more we learn about Mercury, the more we learn about the evolution of our planet and others like it.”

In the grand scheme of the universe, Mercury’s shrinkage might seem like small change. But for scientists studying the intricacies of planetary formation and evolution, it’s a big deal. As we continue to explore the cosmos, every piece of knowledge we gain brings us one step closer to understanding our place in the universe.

Read more from the original source here: [How Much Has Mercury Shrunk?](https://www.space.com/astronomy/mercury/how-much-has-mercury-shrunk)

In a groundbreaking achievement, scientists have successfully replicated the formation of the universe’s earliest molecules, providing fresh insights into the origins of star formation and challenging our understanding of the early cosmos.

The universe as we know it began approximately 13.8 billion years ago with the Big Bang. After this tumultuous event, the cosmos cooled down, paving the way for the formation of the first molecules. These molecules, primarily composed of helium and hydrogen, played a critical role in the creation of the first stars.

In an effort to understand more about the early universe and the birth of stars, scientists have been striving to recreate this process under laboratory conditions. Now, for the first time, they have succeeded.

Scientists have managed to simulate the conditions that led to the formation of these primary molecules. Through this simulation, they have been able to observe the process of early star formation in a way that has not been possible until now.

Their findings, however, have thrown a curveball at existing theories about the early universe. The results have shown that the first ever molecules of the universe could have formed far more quickly than we previously believed. This challenges our understanding of the early cosmos, suggesting that star formation might have begun sooner than what is currently hypothesized.

“This is an exciting discovery as it not only helps us comprehend how stars were formed in the early universe, but it also pushes us to rethink our current understanding of cosmological history,” said one of the scientists involved in the research.

The process to recreate this scenario involved creating a cloud of supercool helium in a laboratory setting. Scientists then introduced hydrogen into this helium cloud, causing the two elements to combine and form helium hydride, the universe’s first molecule.

The successful recreation of the universe’s first molecules under laboratory conditions is a significant achievement in the field of astrophysics. It opens up new avenues for research and understanding about the early universe and star formation. This research could have profound implications for our understanding of the universe and could potentially reshape our theories about its origins and development.

This groundbreaking scientific achievement serves as a reminder of the wonders of the universe that are yet to be discovered and understood. As scientists continue to delve deeper into the mysteries of the cosmos, who knows what other surprises the universe might have in store for us?

The universe is a vast, complex entity that continues to astound us with its mysteries. This latest discovery is a testament to human ingenuity and our relentless pursuit of knowledge. It underscores our constant endeavor to understand our place in the cosmos, reminding us that we are but a small part of a grand, unfolding cosmic story.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/astronomy/scientists-just-recreated-the-universes-first-ever-molecules-and-the-results-challenge-our-understanding-of-the-early-cosmos](https://www.space.com/astronomy/scientists-just-recreated-the-universes-first-ever-molecules-and-the-results-challenge-our-understanding-of-the-early-cosmos).

Title: Blue Origin Breaks New Ground with ‘Mars Telecommunications Orbiter’

Blue Origin, the innovative space exploration company founded by Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos, is making waves in the industry with its latest proposal. The company plans to utilize its Blue Ring spacecraft platform to develop an innovative project, the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter. The new orbiter, the company says, will provide vital support for future NASA missions to the Red Planet.

The Mars Telecommunications Orbiter represents a significant leap forward in space communication technology. Traditionally, communication between Mars and Earth has been a complex and challenging process due to the vast distances involved. The introduction of this new orbiter would enable faster, more reliable communication between the two planets, enhancing the scientific community’s ability to conduct research and discovery missions.

The proposed orbiter, equipped with state-of-the-art technology, will serve as a communication relay between Mars and Earth. It will collect data from Mars rovers and other spacecraft, then transmit this information back to Earth. This would significantly improve the speed and efficiency of data transmission, greatly aiding in the exploration and study of the Red Planet.

Blue Origin’s Mars Telecommunications Orbiter could also prove crucial in paving the way for manned Mars missions. The system would provide a reliable communication link, ensuring the safety and success of future explorers. As we set our sights on sending humans to Mars, such technologies are more important than ever.

The proposal for a new Mars orbiter comes as interest in Mars exploration is at an all-time high. NASA’s Perseverance rover is currently trudging across the Martian surface, seeking signs of past microbial life and collecting samples of rock and regolith (broken rock and soil) for future return to Earth. The European Space Agency’s ExoMars rover, set for launch in 2022, is also set to join the exploration efforts.

These missions underscore the importance of reliable, efficient communication with Mars. The Mars Telecommunications Orbiter could be instrumental in this endeavor, enhancing our ability to explore, understand, and eventually colonize the Red Planet.

Blue Origin’s proposal is a testament to the company’s commitment to advancing space exploration. From its inception, the company has been dedicated to developing technologies that reduce the cost and increase the reliability of access to space. The Mars Telecommunications Orbiter is another bold step in this direction.

As we look forward to the future of Mars exploration, the potential contributions of private space companies like Blue Origin cannot be overlooked. Their innovations are reshaping the landscape of space exploration, and the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter is a shining example of their forward-thinking approach.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/blue-origin-pitches-new-mars-telecommunications-orbiter-for-red-planet-missions-video](https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/blue-origin-pitches-new-mars-telecommunications-orbiter-for-red-planet-missions-video).

Title: NASA’s Perseverance Rover Discovers Helmet-Like Rock on Martian Surface

NASA’s Perseverance rover has added a new, intriguing item to its Martian catalog – a rock formation bearing a striking resemblance to a medieval helmet. This peculiar discovery is the latest addition to an ever-growing collection of oddly shaped rocks the rover has come across on the Red Planet.

Since its February 2021 landing in the Jezero Crater, the Perseverance rover has been busy exploring Mars’ geology, climate, and potential for past life. In the process, it has stumbled upon a variety of fascinating rock formations, each contributing to our understanding of Mars’ geological history, and occasionally, providing a source of amusement for scientists and observers alike.

The rover’s latest find, quickly dubbed the “Mars Helmet” due to its uncanny resemblance to a medieval headgear, has sparked interest and speculation among the space exploration community. However, despite its fantastical appearance, the explanation for its shape is likely down to perfectly ordinary geological processes.

Scientists suggest that the “helmet” is likely the result of a type of weathering process known as “differential erosion.” This occurs when various parts of a rock erode at different rates due to differences in hardness and exposure to wind and other elements. Over time, this can lead to the creation of unusual shapes, such as the helmet-like structure spotted by Perseverance.

While the “Mars Helmet” provides a fun visual for space enthusiasts, it is also a valuable piece of the puzzle for scientists studying Mars’ geology. The rate and manner in which Mars’ rocks erode provide crucial insights into the planet’s past climates and conditions, information that could help scientists determine if Mars ever had the right conditions to support life.

NASA’s Perseverance rover continues its mission, equipped with an array of scientific instruments designed to study Mars’ geology and climate in unprecedented detail. Among its tasks is the collection of rock and soil samples for a possible future return mission to Earth, a feat that could provide us with even more detailed information about the Red Planet’s history.

The “Mars Helmet” is yet another testament to the intriguing mysteries that Mars continues to offer. As Perseverance carries on with its exploration, who knows what other wondrous formations and clues about the Red Planet’s past it will uncover?

As we continue to explore Mars and the rest of our vast universe, discoveries like these remind us of the beauty and mystery that lie beyond our world. The helmet-like rock on Mars is not just a curiosity, but a symbol of the spirit of exploration that drives us to uncover the secrets of the cosmos.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/nasas-perseverance-rover-spies-mysterious-helmet-on-mars-photo](https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/nasas-perseverance-rover-spies-mysterious-helmet-on-mars-photo).

Title: A Glimpse into the Underworld: Proposed Pluto Mission Awaits Green Light

The mysteries of the distant dwarf planet, Pluto, may soon be unveiled. A burgeoning mission, intriguingly named “Persephone” — after the Greek queen of the underworld — is drawing attention for its promise to explore Pluto and its moons. However, this ambitious project remains in the conceptual stage, awaiting necessary funding and approval.

Persephone is envisioned to be a long-duration mission, extending for a staggering 50 years. The primary purpose of the mission is to investigate the possibility of a hidden ocean beneath Pluto’s icy facade. The existence of such an ocean could significantly enhance our understanding of the tiny, frigid world, and the broader cosmos.

Pluto, once considered the ninth planet in our solar system before its reclassification as a dwarf planet in 2006, has been a subject of fascination for astronomers and space enthusiasts alike. The most recent mission to Pluto, NASA’s New Horizons, captured stunning images and collected invaluable data during its 2015 flyby. However, due to the rapid nature of the flyby, New Horizons left many questions unanswered.

The Persephone mission aims to fill in those gaps. According to scientists, the proposed mission would enable a comprehensive exploration of the dwarf planet and its five known moons. By spending an extended period in the Plutonian system, it would have the opportunity to probe deeper into Pluto’s mysterious features.

One such feature is the possibility of a hidden ocean beneath Pluto’s icy surface. In recent years, scientists have hypothesized that beneath Pluto’s heart-shaped glacier, known as Sputnik Planitia, there may lie a subsurface ocean of liquid water. If this is confirmed, it could revolutionize our understanding of the conditions necessary for life and reshape future astrobiology research.

However, mounting a mission like Persephone is not without its challenges. The most significant hurdles are securing the necessary funding and obtaining approval from governing bodies. Given the scale of the mission and the distance to Pluto, it would require a substantial financial commitment. Moreover, the lengthy duration of the proposed mission raises new logistical and technical issues that will need to be addressed.

Despite these hurdles, the excitement surrounding the Persephone mission is palpable. If it gets the green light, it could offer unprecedented insights into Pluto’s intriguing geology and potentially, its hidden ocean. As we await the fate of the queen of the underworld’s flight, the potential discoveries are already sparking our imaginations and fueling our curiosity about the cosmos.

As the world of space exploration continues to evolve and expand, missions like Persephone bring us closer to understanding our place in the universe. They remind us that even in the farthest corners of our solar system, there may be secrets waiting to be discovered.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/astronomy/pluto/new-pluto-mission-could-uncover-dwarf-planets-hidden-ocean-if-the-queen-of-the-underworld-gets-to-fly](https://www.space.com/astronomy/pluto/new-pluto-mission-could-uncover-dwarf-planets-hidden-ocean-if-the-queen-of-the-underworld-gets-to-fly).

Title: Peering into Martian Depths: Mars Orbiter Maps Mysterious Chasms and Valleys

For over two decades, ESA’s Mars Express spacecraft has been sending breathtaking imagery and invaluable data back to Earth from Mars’s enigmatic surface. Its primary focus is the dynamic Acheron Fossae region, a vast network of chasms and valleys that offer intriguing insights into the Red Planet’s geological history.

The Acheron Fossae region, named after a river in Greek mythology believed to lead to the underworld, is a collection of deep, elongated depressions, stretching over a thousand kilometers. These chasms and valleys, some of which are deeper than Earth’s Grand Canyon, are believed to be the result of tectonic activity – the movement and deformation of a planet’s crust.

For over 20 years, the Mars Express spacecraft has been photographing and studying this region, providing scientists with unprecedented detail of its geological features. The spacecraft’s High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) captures the Martian surface in stunning 3D, allowing scientists to analyze the topography of Mars in ways previously impossible.

These images are not just aesthetically pleasing; they hold keys to unlocking the mysteries of Mars’s past. By studying these chasms and valleys, scientists hope to better understand the history of Martian tectonic and volcanic activity, as well as the planet’s past water history.

The deep chasms in the Acheron Fossae region, for instance, suggest that the Martian crust was stretched and cracked open, likely due to volcanic activity beneath the surface. This opens up the possibility of Mars having been geologically active in the past, a notion that could have profound implications for the search for past life on Mars.

Meanwhile, the valleys suggest the presence of ancient water flows. By examining the patterns and features of these valleys, scientists can infer the direction and volume of past water flows, giving them invaluable insight into Mars’s climate history. This could help answer the burning question of whether Mars was once a wet world, potentially capable of supporting life.

The Mars Express spacecraft’s ongoing mission is a testament to human curiosity and our quest for knowledge about our solar system. Its exploration of the Acheron Fossae region is helping us unravel the mysteries of the Red Planet, one chasm and valley at a time.

As we continue to peer into these Martian depths, who knows what exciting discoveries lie ahead? With every new image and piece of data that Mars Express sends back, we inch closer to understanding our enigmatic neighbor in the cosmos.

The mysteries of Mars are slowly but surely unfolding before our eyes, thanks to the tireless work of the Mars Express spacecraft and the scientists who study its findings. As we continue our cosmic journey of discovery, one can only imagine what we will learn next about the intriguing history and geology of the Red Planet.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/mars-orbiter-looks-deep-into-chasms-and-valleys-on-the-martian-surface](https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/mars-orbiter-looks-deep-into-chasms-and-valleys-on-the-martian-surface).

Title: A Cosmic Conundrum: Light Pollution Threatens Global Observatories and Astronomical Studies

The cosmos, once a vast and unblemished canvas for astronomers, is steadily being tarnished by an ever-growing problem: light pollution. Recent findings suggest that artificial light produced by human activities is brightening the night sky by an alarming rate of up to 10% per year. This increase in ambient light is casting a veil over our view of the universe, making it increasingly difficult for astronomers to study celestial bodies and phenomena.

Light pollution, or the excessive and misdirected artificial light from street lamps, buildings, and vehicles, is a well-known issue among astronomers. However, the severity of its impact on astronomical research is only now becoming apparent. Observatories around the globe, once constructed in remote areas to avoid light interference, are now finding themselves engulfed by the encroaching glow of expanding urban areas.

The light interference from our cities and towns is so intense that it’s compromising the ability of telescopes to capture clear images of the cosmos. This is because artificial light scatters in the atmosphere, creating a skyglow that outshines faint astronomical objects. The result? It’s like trying to see stars through a foggy window – the light pollution obscures the subtle details that astronomers need to decipher the mysteries of the universe.

This escalating problem not only impacts astronomical research but also has profound effects on our environment and health. Light pollution disrupts the natural rhythms of wildlife and has been linked to a range of human health issues, including sleep disorders and reduced immune function.

Efforts are underway to combat this issue. Some cities have started implementing ‘dark sky’ initiatives, which involve adjusting street lighting to minimize upward and outward light spillage. In addition, the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) is working globally to protect the night skies for present and future generations.

However, as our urban areas continue to expand and technology advances, the fight against light pollution becomes increasingly challenging. It’s a race against the growing glow, and astronomers are on the front lines, advocating for change before our window to the universe is completely obscured.

While the issue of light pollution is a complex one, it’s clear that collective action is needed. As individuals, we can contribute to the solution by being mindful of our own light usage, supporting dark sky initiatives, and advocating for responsible lighting policies. As we continue to reach for the stars, let’s not forget the importance of preserving our ability to see them.

This global dilemma serves as a stark reminder of the delicate balance between technological progress and the preservation of our natural environment. It also underlines the importance of astronomy – not just for scientific advancement, but as a reminder of our place in the grand scale of the universe.

Read more from the original source here: https://www.space.com/astronomy/light-pollution-is-encroaching-on-observatories-around-the-globe-making-it-harder-for-astronomers-to-study-the-cosmos.

In an engaging new book, author and science writer David Baron unpacks the fascinating history of the human obsession with the Red Planet. “The Martians,” Baron’s latest offering, delves into the turn-of-the-century Mars craze, a period marked by rampant speculation, scientific discovery, and public fascination with our planetary neighbor.

The Mars craze began 120 years ago, sparked by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli’s observation of what he called “canali”, or channels, on the Martian surface. This term was later mistranslated into English as “canals,” suggesting the existence of intelligent life on Mars. This misinterpretation ignited the public’s imagination, plunging society into a Martian frenzy that permeated popular culture and scientific discourse alike.

“Scientists, writers, and the general public were all captivated by the idea of intelligent Martians constructing these canals,” Baron explained. “It was a time of great scientific advancement, and many saw Mars as the next frontier.”

In “The Martians,” Baron highlights the leading figures of this era, including Percival Lowell, the wealthy American astronomer who dedicated his life to studying Mars. Lowell’s passion for the Red Planet was so intense that he built an observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, specifically to observe Mars. His writings on the subject further fueled the Mars craze and influenced a generation of scientists and science fiction writers.

Baron also discusses the role of popular media in the Mars mania. Newspapers and magazines published vivid illustrations of Martian landscapes and speculated on the potential for interplanetary communication. Even the world of fiction was not immune to the Mars fever, with authors like H.G. Wells penning the classic “War of the Worlds.”

“Despite the lack of solid evidence, the idea of life on Mars was taken very seriously,” Baron said. “This period in history is a testament to the power of human curiosity and our inherent fascination with the unknown.”

However, the Mars craze was not to last. As telescopes improved and our understanding of the planet evolved, the notion of canals and an inhabited Mars was largely debunked. Today, the focus has shifted from Martian canals to searching for microbial life and planning manned missions to Mars.

“The Martians” is not merely a history book. It’s an exploration of humanity’s enduring fascination with space, the power of scientific discovery, and our incessant drive to understand the unknown. It serves as a reminder of the role of imagination in science, and the profound impact that our celestial neighbor has had on human culture and thought.

With the recent resurgence in interest around Mars, driven by advancements in space technology and ambitious plans for human colonization, “The Martians” is a timely reflection on our historical and ongoing relationship with the Red Planet.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/how-the-red-planet-craze-started-120-years-ago-interview-with-the-martians-author-david-baron](https://www.space.com/astronomy/mars/how-the-red-planet-craze-started-120-years-ago-interview-with-the-martians-author-david-baron).

In anticipation of the two-episode premiere of the new series ‘Alien: Earth’, we had the chance to engage in an enlightening conversation with the brains behind this thrilling space odyssey – series creator Noah Hawley and executive producer David W. Zucker. The duo has set out to recreate the feeling of discovery that kept viewers on the edge of their seats during the original series.

Hawley, known for his innovative storytelling and creation of engaging narratives, is no stranger to the world of science fiction. Zucker, with his broad experience in the production of high-quality television, brings a wealth of expertise to the table. Together, they aim to craft a series that not only captivates viewers but also instills a sense of wonder about the cosmos and our place within it.

According to Hawley and Zucker, ‘Alien: Earth’ is designed to mimic the feeling of discovery, a sentiment that was central to the experience of watching the original series. They are keen to ensure that the new series elicits the same sense of fascination and awe, sparking curiosity about the mysteries of the universe.

The creators spoke passionately about their desire to preserve the sense of the unknown that is integral to space exploration. As Hawley put it, “We want to recreate the feeling of watching through the foggy glass of a spaceship window, not knowing what lies beyond. It’s about capturing that sense of wonder, of the infinite possibilities that space holds.”

Zucker added, “Our aim is to make viewers feel like they’re embarking on a journey into the unknown, just like the characters in the series. We want to keep them guessing, to keep them engaged, and most importantly, to keep them in awe of the vastness and complexity of the universe.”

‘Alien: Earth’ promises an immersive experience that takes viewers on an enthralling journey into space, capturing the beauty, mystery, and danger of the cosmos. The series seeks to recreate the intrigue and excitement that has long been associated with space exploration, from the maiden voyages of the early astronauts to the current advancements in interstellar travel.

While the creators were careful not to reveal too much about what lies in store for ‘Alien: Earth’, it’s clear that they are dedicated to producing a series that resonates with viewers and inspires a new generation of space enthusiasts.

As we await the premiere of ‘Alien: Earth’, it’s evident that Hawley and Zucker are committed to capturing the spirit of the original series, while adding their unique spin. Their goal to ‘mimic the feeling of discovery’ is sure to make for a compelling watch that reignites our collective fascination with the final frontier.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/entertainment/space-movies-shows/alien-earth-creators-noah-hawley-and-david-w-zucker-want-to-mimic-the-feeling-of-discovery-you-felt-when-watching-the-original-exclusive](https://www.space.com/entertainment/space-movies-shows/alien-earth-creators-noah-hawley-and-david-w-zucker-want-to-mimic-the-feeling-of-discovery-you-felt-when-watching-the-original-exclusive).

Title: Astronomers Turn Starlight Into a Tool for Gauging Earth’s Greenhouse Gases

In a breakthrough development, scientists have found a way to turn the tools of stargazing into sensors for measuring greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere. This new technique, named Astroclimes, ingeniously repurposes astronomical instruments to contribute to climate science.

The Astroclimes algorithm, developed by a team of innovative scientists, is designed to harness the light from distant stars as they twinkle through Earth’s gaseous envelope. As starlight passes through our atmosphere, it interacts with the molecules present, including greenhouse gases. These interactions subtly change the starlight, and these changes can be read and analyzed by Astroclimes to provide an accurate measurement of greenhouse gas concentrations.

Traditionally, studying greenhouse gases has required specific, often expensive, instruments, as well as difficult data collection processes. However, Astroclimes could potentially revolutionize this field of study by making use of pre-existing astronomical equipment, which is widespread and often already collecting the necessary data.

The algorithm is a unique blend of astronomy and climatology and represents a significant step forward in interdisciplinary science. By cross-pollinating these two fields, the researchers have effectively created a new method to help us understand the health of our planet’s atmosphere and its ongoing changes.

Greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, are key players in global warming and climate change. They trap heat within our atmosphere, leading to a rise in global temperatures, melting ice caps, and a host of other environmental problems. Being able to accurately measure the concentrations of these gases in our atmosphere is crucial for creating effective strategies to combat climate change.

The Astroclimes algorithm is not just a theoretical development; it has already been tested and validated. The scientists compared the greenhouse gas measurements taken by Astroclimes with those from NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 satellite, finding a high degree of correlation. This validation test proves that the algorithm can precisely measure greenhouse gas concentrations using starlight, marking a significant milestone in climate science.

This exciting development shows how the exploration of outer space can directly benefit our understanding of our own planet. While Astroclimes was developed to measure greenhouse gases, there’s potential for it to be refined to detect other atmospheric constituents in the future, broadening its applications even further.

It’s an exciting time to be gazing at the stars. The twinkling lights that have guided explorers for millennia are now helping us navigate the challenges of climate change. By turning our sights skyward, we can gain a better understanding of the world beneath our feet.

For those curious about the stars and our atmosphere, keep your eyes on the sky and stay tuned. The universe is full of surprises, and as this story shows, some of them can even help us protect our own planet.

Read more from the original source here: [https://www.space.com/astronomy/astronomers-use-starlight-to-measure-greenhouse-gases-in-earths-atmosphere](https://www.space.com/astronomy/astronomers-use-starlight-to-measure-greenhouse-gases-in-earths-atmosphere).